acid mine drainage (AMD) - water from flooded abandoned mine tunnels which drains into a near by stream. As ground water and surface precipitation flow through the underground tunnels and mine workings in the Lackawanna Valley, the water dissolves minerals which are contained in the coal and rock strata between coal seams. Iron pyrite also known as fool's gold, manganese and aluminum sulfides are the major sources of AMD. When the mineral laden water flows through old drainage tunnels and pours into the River, the metals oxidize and drop out of solution. This action robs the stream of dissolved oxygen and coats the stream bottom and banks with a characteristic yellow-orange coloration.

alluvial deposits - an assemblage of sediments marking a location where a stream moves from a steep to a flatter gradient. The stream loses velocity and transporting power. Sediments drop out and form gravel bars or alluvial fans. Many alluvial sediments in the Lackawanna contain shale, culm and anthracite silts.

anadromous fish - a fish which returns from the ocean to a freshwater stream to spawn. Salmon, shad, herring are examples. A shad restoration program may someday open the Susquehanna and Lackawanna to a return of the shad fishery.

anticline - a configuration of folded stratified rocks which dips away from a crest, similar to rafters on a roof. (see syncline.)

benthic - the environment of a river bottom; cobblestones, gravel and sediments form a horizon which provides a habitat for a variety of crustaceans such as crayfish and macro-invertebrates like caddis fly and mayfly.

bog - a wetland formed when a glacial lake fills in with decayed vegetation. The vegetation forms a mat of peat. The centers of some bogs are open water surrounded by sphagnum moss and sedge grasses, evergreen shrubs and trees such as larch and black spruce, red oak and maple. Bogs, glacial lakes and wetlands provide a constant source of water for the Lackawanna and other streams in Northeastern Pennsylvania.

cascade - a waterfall; a stream channel cuts its course through a variety of rock structures, waterfalls are located where a harder rock overlies a softer rock.

channel - the course cut by a stream from its source to its confluence. Meandering and braided channels are common on flood plains with deep sediments.

Class " A" Fishery - in Pennsylvania, a fishery producing forty pounds of trout per acre of stream is rated class "A". This is usually an indicator of good water quality. The Lackawanna has twelve miles of Class " A" brown trout fishery from Carbondale to Olyphant.

coliform - a type of bacteria common in soil, fecal coliform is present in human waste. Its presence in a stream is an indication of sewage pollution, agricultural or urban non-point runoff.

combined sewer outfall (CSO) - a device or structure which allows an interceptor or trunk line sewer to overflow into a water body. CSO allow the combined sanitary and storm water which floods the line during storm events to discharge into a nearby water body to prevent flooding of the downstream treatment plants or backups into streets and private property. After the storm surge is dissipated, the sanitary flows continue to the treatment plant. New technologies are being developed to treat or eliminate CSO's. There are approximately one-hundred forty CSO's on the Lackawanna.

confluence - a location where two streams join together. The Lackawanna confluence with the Susquehanna is at Pittston.

culm - a mixture of coal, rock and shale, removed from anthracite coal during processing in coal breakers. Various types of culm dumps are conspicuous features of the Lackawanna Valley landscape. Some piles contain extractable coal while others consist of shale and rock. Culm dumps are surface sources of AMD.

dendritic - a pattern of drainage formed in a watershed with uniform flat lying rock. This pattern similar to the branches of a tree is common in the Lackawanna watershed.

flood control - any attempt to mitigate or prevent loss of life or property from flooding. Structural flood control depends on expensive dams, levees, concrete channelization or dredging. Non-structural flood control acknowledges the reality of flooding and encourages development away from flood plains. It also recognizes the value of maintaining vegetation and natural stream corridors to slow down the storm runoff and re duce flood crests.

glacial lake - a lake formed in a depression left by retreating glaciers. The lakes of Susquehanna and Wayne counties, which are the source of the Lackawanna, are glacial in origin.

gorge - an extremely steep sided stream channel formed where the stream has cut hard resistant rocks. The Lackawanna watershed contains several gorges, the most famous being Nay Aug in Scranton. Fallbrook, White Oak Run, Panthers Bluff and Hulls Creek also contain these picturesque geologic features.

gradient - the slope of a stream bed. The gradient of the Lackawanna River is thirty-nine feet per mile.

hundred year flood - a statistical term predicting that a flood of a certain level has a 1% probability of occurring on any given year.

hydrograph- the measurement of runoff from a storm event. A volume of rain falls over time and runs off over time. The crest of a hydrograph represents the crest of storm run off as it surges downstream.

hydrologic cycle - the path of water through the environment from precipitation to absorption through plants and soils to runoff into streams and evaporation into the atmosphere.

infiltration - the movement of surface water from storm runoff and stream flows through fractures in the ground or stream bed s into the mine pool. Some hydrogeological studies have shown that 50% of the AMD entering the Lackawanna River is the result of surface infiltration.

interceptor sewer - a large sewer line usually following a river or stream which intercepts sewage from smaller street sewers. Interceptors were installed to convey sewage to treatment plants and eliminate older discharges into streams.

macro-invertebrate - benthic macro-invertebrates are aquatic invertebrates animals without backbones) that live at least part of their life cycle in or on the bottom substrate of a body of water. Examples of these organisms are: crayfish, snails, clams, worms, leeches and aquatic insect larvae such as stone flies, mayflies, and Caddis flies. Benthic macro-invertebrates are indicators of overall water quality. Various species exhibit different tolerances for pollution. Macros are an essential link in the food chain between aquatic plants and organic detritus and valuable fish such as trout. The collection and analysis of the number and diversity of organisms from a given site can provide general information about the water quality of the stream in that location.

meander - the tendency of a river or stream to flow in broad sweeping curves. Meanders often occur where rivers flow through the alluvial sediments along broad flood plains. The flow of water removes sediments on the outside bends and deposits material on the inside of the bend. Gravel bars are often found inside bends of the Lackawanna and undercut banks on the deeper faster flowing outside bend. Braided channels result when excessive sediment loads fill the water course in areas of shallow gradient.

mixing zone - a regulatory term describing the area of a water body where a point source of pollution becomes dissolved and mixed in the water column.

non-point source - water pollution which occurs in subtle and minute ways as contaminants become waterborne and enter a stream over a widely dispersed area. Runoff from agricultural chemicals and animal waste are non-point sources of nutrient and bacteriological pollution. Runoff from roads, parking lots, construction, lawn fertilizers are urban non-point sources of chemical, sediment and nutrient pollution.

NPDES (National Pollution Elimination Discharge System) - the process established in federal law which requires states, to regulate water quality and monitor discharges into water bodies.

nutrient - organic chemical compounds such as phosphates and nitrates, typically found in fertilizer, animal and human waste. Excessive amounts of nutrients stimulate overgrowth of algae causing eutriphication of a water body, degrading the aquatic habitat.

perennial flow - a constant flow of water in a stream or river. Some streams with intermittent flow carry water on a seasonal basis.

point source - an identifiable source of pollution entering a water body. Discharge from industrial plants, sewer plants, combined storm- sewer outfalls (CSO's), and acid mine drainage outfalls (AMD) are point sources of pollution. Point sources are both regulated and non regulated. The Clean Water Act requires all discharges to register, apply for and maintain NPDES permits which regulate what, when and how they discharge treated waste water into a water body. Other point source discharges such as acid mine drainage from some abandoned mines and storm drains from roads and parking lots are not currently regulated.

POTW (Publicly Owned Treatment Works) - municipally owned sanitary sewer treatment plants and collection systems also known as STP or sewage treatment plants.

rapids - reaches of a stream where a steeper gradient increasing velocity and cobble or rock strata create swiftly flowing white water runs.

red-ash - the material formed by the burning of culm dumps, similar in some respects to volcanic materials. Red-ash has been used as a base for driveways and trails.

riffle - similar to rapids but consisting predominantly of cobble and gravel.

riparian - an adjective referring to or of a stream bank and/or adjacent flood plain. Example: a riparian zone may indicate an area between high and low flow levels. A riparian forest or habitat may include plants and animals acclimated to river bank environments where a high water table and occasional flooding are normal.

stewardship - the act of caring for our land, water, air and living natural resources. The responsible management of resources which protects the resources for the future while encouraging the appropriate use and understanding of the resources for today.

swale - a grass lined ditch, a natural or constructed waterway.

syncline - a geological configuration of folded, stratified rocks in which rocks dip downward from opposite directions to come together in a trough. The opposite of anticline.

wetland - an area of land with hydric soils which regularly retain moisture and support the growth of plants acclimated to wet conditions. Wetlands may or may not have standing water. Wetlands help retain water from rain and snow runoff, slowly releasing water to provide streams with a constant flow. Wetland retention also aids in reducing peak storm flows, providing downstream communities with natural flood control.

Folsom, Burton W. Jr. Urban Capitalists. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981. A comparative historical analysis of the development of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Bethlehem, and several other communities in the Anthracite region.

Hollister, Horace, MD. A History of the Lackawanna Valley. New York, NY: Alvord, 1869. A local history of the early settlement of the Valley. Available in the Scranton Public Library reference department.

Loree, L. F., et al. The Story of Anthracite. Scranton, PA: International Textbook Press, 1932. A corporate history published by the Hudson Coal Company. The Story of Anthracite offers historical, geological, social and economic background on the development of the anthracite industry in the Lackawanna Valley.

Peters, Albert E. Lackawanna River Basin Mine Drainage Abatement Study (Scarlift Program). Scranton, PA: A. E. Peters, A&E Inc, 1978. The Scarlift Program was conducted by PA Department of Environmental Resources in the 1970's. This engineering study contains essential hydrogeologic information helpful in understanding the AMD situation in the Lackawanna Valley.

Van Diver, Bradford B. Roadside Geology of Pennsylvania. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing, 1990. A useful and informative handbook which interprets the geology of Pennsylvania.

While no book has been written on flooding in the Lackawanna Valley, the files of the Scranton Times and the microfilm archives of the Scranton Public Library have extensive newspaper accounts of historical floods. The bibliographies in the Palmer and Stranahan books have numerous citations on flood related books and journal articles. The LRCA has Lackawanna River Basin flood study reports available on a reference basis to students or researchers.

Copeland, Thomas, and Robert Moase. Fisheries Management Report, Lackawanna River. Sweet Valley, PA: PA Fish and Boat Commission, 1992. This study found the Lackawanna supporting a Class "A" brown trout fishery. The report contains the most recent aquatic tissue toxicity data on the Lackawanna.

Fiske, Steve, and Jack Byrne. Key to the Freshwater Macro invertebrate Fauna of New England. Montpelier, VT: River Watch Network, 1988. River Watch Network publishes several useful field handbooks on aquatic resource analysis. The Save Our Streams program of the Izaak Walton League of America is another good source of water quality and aquatic habitat information.

Kricher, John C. A Field Guide to Eastern Forests. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988. A publication in the Peterson Field Guide series in association with the National Audubon Society, the National Wildlife Federation, and the Roger Tory Peterson Institute. This book is a must for anyone interested in understanding how our ecosystem works. It covers everything natural in the woods.

Kupsky, Edward P. and Sherrill R. Wills. Lackawanna River Investigation. Wilkes-Barre, PA: PA Department of Environmental Resources, 1991. This report documents a year long study of the Lackawanna by DER. It covers physical, chemical and biological conditions and examines AMD, CSO, and non point urban problems and their effects on water quality in the Lackawanna.

Lackawanna River Corridor Master Plan Resource Assessment. Philadelphia, PA: National Park Service, 1990. One of several supporting documents prepared with federal and state agencies as part of the Lackawanna River Citizens Master Plan. These documents are available from the Lackawanna River Corridor Association.

Arendt, Randall. Designing Open Space Subdivisions. Media, PA: Natural Lands Trust, Inc., 1994. This book by Arendt builds on the theme of conservation based development. With a variety of design approaches, Arendt shows how a property can be developed with a minimum impact on open space habitat and a maximum return on investment. Anyone thinking about developing property should read this book first. Available from Natural Lands Trust, 610) 352 -5587.

Coughlin, R., J. Denworth, et al. Guiding Growth, A Planning and Growth Management Handbook for Pennsylvania Municipalities. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Pennsylvania Environmental Council, 1993. Every citizen, developer, and municipal official should read this book. Guiding Growth provides a useful summary of the legal basis for community planning and zoning in Pennsylvania. It discusses contemporary and traditional growth patterns, and offers hundreds of examples of how we can plan better more economically and environmentally responsive communities. Available from the Pennsylvania Environmental Council, 1 (800) 322-9214 or the LRCA.

Deans, Karen, ed. Conservation Options, A Landowners Guide. Washington, DC: The Land Trust Alliance, 1993. This book explains what a conservation easement is and how a private property owner and a local conservancy can work together to conserve land, while meeting the long term financial and estate needs of the property owner. Available from the Land Trust Alliance , (202) 638-4725.

District Engineer. The Lackawanna River Greenway Reconnaissance Report. 3 vols. Baltimore, MD: US Army Corps of Engineers, Baltimore District Planning Division, 1993. This report documents an eighteen month study to identify federal and state interests in environmental restoration, recreation, and comprehensive watershed resources management. Published in three volumes this technical document is available for research purposes from the Lackawanna River Corridor Association.

Ellett, Kathleen, and Alice Mayio. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. Washington, DC: US EPA, Office of Water, 1990. This guide demonstrates how effective citizen volunteer water quality monitoring programs can help local communities identify and solve water quality problems. Legal, scientific and organizational issues are discussed.

Hoffman, Charles R., et al. The Lackawanna River Citizens Master Plan. Scranton, PA: Lackawanna River Corridor Association, 1990. This document describes in detail the results of a two year comprehensive assessment of problems and opportunities relating to the Lackawanna River. The plan's recommendations are the framework for a watershed based resource restoration and management process presently underway with local, state, and federal participants. The LRCA has additional supporting documentation available for research purposes.

Labaree, J. M. How Greenways Work: A Handbook on Ecology. Ipswich, MA: National Park Service and The Atlantic Center for the Environment, 1992. A guide to understanding how the landscape ecology of a greenway helps to restore and maintain stream corridor environments and compliments community values.

Lane, Johnathan, et al. The Plan for the Lackawanna Heritage Valley. Scranton, PA: Lackawanna County Commissioners, 1991. The Plan for the Heritage Valley recommended the creation of the Lackawanna Heritage Valley Authority and the National Institute for Environmental Renewal. This document is essential reading to aid in understanding the broad range of Heritage programs being developed in the Lackawanna Valley. The plans for a Lackawanna River Greenway are integrated to the Heritage plan. This document is available by contacting the Lackawanna Heritage Valley Authority. (570) 876-6188.

Palmer, Tim. Lifelines The Case for River Conservation. Washington , DC: Island Press, 1994. The latest in a series of river related books by Palmer. Lifelines offers some perspective on what we are doing to conserve our nation's river resources.

River, Trail and Conservation Program, National Park Service. Economic Impacts of Protecting Rivers, Trails, and Greenway Corridors: A Resource Book. Washington, DC: US Dept of Interior, 1991. This book demonstrates how conservation of greenways can provide beneficial economic impacts to communities from job creation, improved real estate values and increased public participation in community activities.

Scenic Rivers Program. Stream bank Stabilization Guide and Management Guide for Pennsylvania Landowners. Harrisburg, PA: PA Dept of Environmental Resources, Scenic Rivers Program, 1986. If you have a river or stream along your property this informative book is essential reading to help you better manage your property. Available from the State Bookstore, Post Office Box 1365, Harrisburg, PA 17105 or from the LRCA.

Stranahan, Susan Q. Susquehanna, River of Dreams. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. This reflective book looks at our historical and present day relationship with the Susquehanna. It provides a good starting place to begin to learn about the Great Susquehanna watershed and water resources policy in Pennsylvania.

Meck, Charles R. Pennsylvania Trout Streams and Their Hatches. Woodstock, VT: Back Country Publications, 1993. This is the bible for fly fishermen in Pennsylvania. This book along with the Lost Higbee Map and a friendly inquisitive personality will help you find the best fly fishing opportunities in Pennsylvania. After the Fish Commission study of 1991, Meck was reintroduced to the Lackawanna by Mike Stevens of Channel 16's Pennsylvania Outdoor Life. Meck has some good things to say about the Lackawanna.

Landis, Dwight. Trout Streams of Pennsylvania. Bellefonte, PA: Hempstead-Lyndell, 1995. This is a current statewide look at many of the premier trout water in the state. Dwight includes excellent maps as well as up to date information on Pennsylvania's trout water, hatches, and local contacts.

PA Fish and Boat Commission. Summary of Fishery Regulations 1999. This annual summary provides useful information on the locations and regulations governing Pennsylvania fishing waters including the Lackawanna.

Gertler, Edward. Keystone Canoeing, A Guide to the Canoeable Waters of Eastern Pennsylvania. Silver Spring, MD: The Seneca Press, 1988. Recommended reading to anyone who would canoe the Lackawanna or hundreds of other streams in eastern Pennsylvania. Hopefully the Lackawanna River Greenway programs will inspire Mr. Gertler to reappraise his commentary on the aesthetics of certain reaches of the Lackawanna in future editions.

Last Update: February 06, 2003

(c) 1999 LRCA